See Asignment criteria- request for writer 5689 of possible Essay

See Asignment criteria- request for writer 5689 of possible - Essay Example sidered the height of the romantic manifestation with regard to the [Spanish] stage,’ explicitly references its central theme of Destiny in the title – ‘la fuerza del sino’ as it applies to the struggle and ultimate defeat of the protagonist (Young 1933, 278). Within the typical Sturm und Drang Romantic expression, Rivas utilises a conception of ‘fate’ to explore and undermine the obsolescing social hierarchy that dominated contemporary Spanish life. Yet the question remains unclear: what exactly is the nature, the driving force of this conceived destiny? Does this demonstrate the movement of divine providence, or is this more akin to the fatalistic destiny of the Greeks? As the story progresses, the thread of fate that propels the action reveals itself to be profoundly fatalistic, not the orchestration of an omnipotent God but the engine of the myriad unseen forces that surround and enshround Don à lvaro in his journey through despair. This fatalism draws its roots most profoundly from the tradition of Greek tragedy in which destiny always played a primary role. Yet Rivas develops advances on this fatalistic tradition, showing through the random twists delivered by destiny’s hand the massively destructive forces of the familial Spanish hierarchy, which from the beginning envelop the protagonist in the shackles of old custom. It is these, Rivas declares audaciously through his play, that make up the very essence of dest iny. It is these, the forces of society, which create the fatalistic reality in which all his characters, and by extension the whole of Spanish populiation, are doomed to their allotted existence. The fatalistic concept fundamental to Greek tragedy is the act of transgression, the fatal flaw caused by hubris, or believing oneself to be above divine law, which transgression in the protagonist’s own demise. This act of transgression could be something as active as Prometheus’ theft of divine fire, for which he was savagely

U.S. History to 1877 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

U.S. History to 1877 - Essay Example The European background After the fall of the Roman Empire, settlement and colonization of the Americas became the first significant move by Europeans. The European occupying powers acquired overseas territories into their possession without clear and obvious authority. The first European powers to establish settlement on the American mainland included Portugal, Spain, France, Holland, and England (Gary, et al 109). Of the five, England arrived relatively later than the rest, but ended up establishing large scale and enduring settlement in America. The British became the most significant colonizers of the US. The British empires in the Americas grew to rival those of the Spanish in economic and military might. European settlement in the Americas resulted to great upheaval among the indigenous civilizations. There were cultural disruptions, military force and introduction of diseases. Apart from promotion of settlement and development, the European powers extensively used trade with t he natives as a policy in their conquest of the Americas. The colonial experience Under British supervision, the American colonies grew and flourished. The colonies practiced limited forms of self government. The vast size of the Atlantic Ocean ensured that the American colonists developed skills to govern themselves. ... England regulated trade by forbidding colonies to trade with other European countries. They also maintained the right to levy taxes on the colonies. English colonialists tried to control American trade, but they could not entirely succeed to oversee the whole American coastline. In the process, colonial merchants learned how to operate outside the British law to enhance their trade. Religiously, those who evaded persecution in England demanded freedom of worship according to their belief systems. The Quakers settled in Pennsylvania, Catholics in Maryland, and the puritans and pilgrim settled in present day Massachusetts (Gary, et al 318). The colonialists brought along religious diversity, which called for freedom of religion in the Americas. The revolutionary period The American Revolution period cover the era from 1763 to 1800. The American Revolution represented the efforts of the thirteen colonies joining together to separate from the British Empire and rule. The era began after the treaty of Paris ended the French and Indian war in 1763 (Gary, et al 402). This ended the military threat fronted by the French in the British North American territories. The British began to exact more authority over the colonies through a set of direct taxes and additional laws. These moves became extremely unpopular in America since most colonies lacked representation in the British parliament. These laws got viewed as illegitimate and a violation of the colonist’s rights. The American enlightenment gets attributed as an ideology behind the revolution. The enlightenment constituted ideas such as liberalism, republicanism and condemnation of corruption. The

History rock and roll Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

History rock and roll - Essay Example This was caused by the featuring of catchy grooves, hand-clapping, impulsive body moves and improvisational elements that swept all through. Sly& the Family Stone caught all lively and musical trends, resulting to a blend of Soul, Rock and Funk. The group has not only produce for, but also performed with black and white musicians just like Motown had incorporated white music into black radio stations. Sly and the Family Stone were driven by many cultural influences including Motown Sound among others. Sly had a short peak period, the least among its kind, falling both in value and critically. It was somewhat reported to be caused by rhythmically loose songs (Geels 1429). Brian Wilson postulates of his inspiration to make the record originating from the Beatles â€Å"Rubber Soul†, which presented the peak of his wave. Additionally, he successfully employed the use of inspiration from across to create a brilliant piece of amazing pop- Pet Sounds. Smiley Smile was a masterpiece, following suit like Pet Sounds- a contemporary classical that swept through, following the same

Political Theory Essay Example for Free

Political Theory Essay Introduction While approaching the writings of major philosophical figures in the 16th century and the 17th century there emerges several weaknesses in addition to their political thought in their time. In his work, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, Quentin Skinner’s emphasises the ‘textualist’ approach by the ones writing within the genre of political theory and further claim that they â€Å"rarely supplies us with genuine histories†. 1 Skinner seems to engage in a ‘historical’ approach to the writings of political thought, which goes hand in hand with the social and political context of the period the major works were composed. Indeed, this proves fruitful for this analysis, and therefore it will be provided a narrow historical review of the period the works were written, in order to present the remarkable similarity between the causes of political thought. Accordingly, there will be implemented a comparison of the philosophers, Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin, focusing primarily of their concept of the state and the church and the differences between the two models of political thought. In terms of the state, the focus will lie on the citizens and the sovereign rule; in terms of the church, an analysis of its place within the governmental framework will be provided. The primary sources used as a basis for this analysis is the work of Jean Bodin Six Books of the Commonwealth, translated by M. J. Tooley, and Hobbes On the Citizen, edited by Richard Tuck Michael Silverthorne. In grasping the political works of Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin it is important to remember that their perception of the state was born in an age of crisis. As central themes of his political thought Hobbes was concerned with peace, security and order; however, religion was omnipresent throughout his experience of life and through his works. For Hobbes the only valid proposition of a natural religion was that something must have created the world, but who or what is not for certain. 2 Most important he also believed that religious division was a significant factor for the origins of war. The basics of Hobbes theory was to add the will to avoid religious conflict and restore peace into one or a group of biological people that was to further secure the will of the state. Like Hobbes, Bodin was concerned with preserving order and his relation to religion is said to be complex. Although he was less familiar with the New political from his religious thought. ’3 However, entering deeper into the religious life of Bodin it is palpable that he never adhered to one true theological standpoint throughout his lifetime. 4 Another factor of correlation between the two political thinkers is their personal historical background containing the experience of war, which largely contributed as one of their causes for writing. Most known for his work and best-seller, Leviathan, the Englishman Thomas Hobbes was to be acknowledged as an important contribution to the philosophical field in his lifetime and all the way to the 21th century. Hobbes was born in 1588 in Westport raised by his non-wealthy family, fortunately being paid for by his uncle to get an education when the time was right. 5 Entering the field of the enlightened, Hobbes at an age of 54 later produced his first claim to fame, De Cive (On the Citizen), published in Latin edition in 1642 which is characterised as one of the forerunners to his major work Leviathan. Here, it is important reconsider what is omnipresent throughout both, De Cive and Leviathan, namely fear: in order to understand his political thought. Some tend to regard Hobbes as a synonym to the concept of fear even though this impossibly cannot be so, however it does not reject King’s argument that Hobbes had experienced disorder in society and therefore feared political chaos. 6 England during the 17th century can in be referred to as a period of transformation both in terms of politics and religion. Historically, throughout Hobbes lifetime (1588 – 1679) the political circumstances in the years of 1642 to 1651 prove to stand out painted in the colour of red. The Reformation left deep traces and was not yet to relinquish as its religious struggles was to turn into a fight of power between the King and the Parliament. 7 The English Civil war provided an environment such as extreme disorder and civil insecurity to be explanatory for the horrors it brought the 6? 78? 9 # $? *: )? : ;0?. / 1 1? ! / 1? =? ? :?! ( 4 ?!! /? $ @ ( 5 JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES,? ? = ? 1? *9/? ;6-. A=? B ;- HTTP://WWW. JSTOR. ORG/STABLE/3745504 0 , $ *3 @ 3 9 )? +? 2 ;A1. / =0 A? 8? ? 9? C D7 @ % $E $ * F;0.? //? F B -1 G/? HH222I H! H 6;0-6 3 13 Political Theory country8. In a chaotic England, Hobbes had to face his own opponents after he had written the first outline of the philosophy of the state, Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, which created an unstable environment for him to live. Indeed, adversity was for Hobbes the reason he decided to flee and choose the life in exile crossing the national boarders to France. 9 When the Civil War was over, he returned home to the end of his life, still absorbed in scientific activity. A lesser-known philosopher yet one of the most ambitious and prolific French scholars, Jean Bodin, was born in 1529 or 30 in the French area of Angers. Although living in separate time periods Bodin is born three years after Machiavelli’s death (1469 – 1527) and died when Thomas Hobbes was eight years of age and therefore spans precisely between these two. 10 Throughout his lifetime he was, in resemblance to Hobbes, to experience war that provoked his political thinking which prospered into what was to be known as The Six Books of the Commonwealth (1955). Bodin was an admirable scholar and by the time he had to face his mortal destiny he made contributions to the area of science stretching from historiography to political economy. 11 Noticeable that he was among the more enlightened characters of his time, Bodin went to Paris in his youth for educational matters studying humanities. Further curious about the juridical nature of society he went to study civil law until the 1560s, and after he turned to a political career becoming a king’s advocate in Paris. A decade later he became a counsellor of the Duke of Alencon which secured him a seat at the table of the royal family, which ceased before 1576. He then further joined the Catholic League (sometimes referred to as the Holy League) which played a major part in the French Wars of Religion (1562–98) eradicating the Protestants also called the Huguenots. 12 Primarily, The Wars involved the Catholic crown attempting to impose religious uniformity upon the large F? What further divided the citizens in contemporary France was their support for various versions of the Christian faith that created a warfare of self-righteousness, which for Bodin, was an erroneous societal condition. What Bodin’s beliefs could be said to represent at the time is further dubiously, but as Summerfield argues, Bodin might have believed that â€Å"Catholicism was the best ‘civil religion’ for his countrymen†. 13 Further, Bodin supported religious diversity in that Catholics should have the opportunity to embrace their faith just the Huguenots without having intolerance towards each other. By offering a narrow description of the historical period relevant to both Hobbes and Bodin and further suggest a biographical outlook of both philosophers, the main focus have been on the facts of importance for further analysis. Main section As discussed to some extent in Bodin’s case, it is applicable to both philosophers that they were living in a time where religion was inseparable from their political thinking. Today it may seem strange that politics of much importance was molded around religious beliefs, because we live in a time where each person is free to decide what to believe and which religion to adhere to. During the period of discussion, the church and the state had too many common interests that a division between them seemed unthinkable. For Bodin, his thought behind his Republic was the hope to restore the splendour and serve the interest of the French Monarchy, which functioned as a cornerstone in his description of the commonwealth. 14 In accordance to Hobbes, much like in the case of Bodin, his impetus of his work De Cive lie primarily in providing a solution to the religious moral conflict prevailing in 16th, 17th century England. Bodin and the family In this section, the discussion will point to Jean Bodin’s concept of the state at a micro level. In Book I, chapter I of the Republic the first sentence acknowledge what Bodin understands to be the nature of the Commonwealth, namely its internal structure being organised around the ?6? ! F1 ?1? 7 @ #? @ ( 2 7 $? *3 @ @ @ (2 )? G : ;0A. / ## 5 13 Political Theory concept of the family (or household), ruled by a sovereign power. 15 The main premise behind. Bodin’s concept of the family has its origins from the alteration of legislation in contemporary France creating a decrease of the â€Å"paternal authority† resulting in a â€Å"decay of family discipline†. 16 For Bodin this was not the ideal familial situation. In Rebublic, the household is portrayed as the essential unit of political organisation within the state and possess the same bilateral structure that there is to find in his ordering of the Commonwealth. Principally, the family consist of a man, which have the centralised authority within the household, a wife and children with the possibility for additional members like freedmen and slaves. 17 To illustrate; the authority of the father extends to a decision of life and death over his children; however, it is not as clear to why he should have this right. For Bodin, the family is vital for preserving the organization within the Commonwealth, he even describe its function using terms as â€Å"true image† of the Commonwealth and â€Å"model of right order† when writing of the household in the Commonwealth. 18 According to Bodin, the father like the sovereign, hold the absolute power within their sphere of influence: the father over the family, the sovereign over the families within the state. He was also convinced that, â€Å"Il est impossible que la Republique vaille rien si les familles, qui sont les piliers d’icelle, sont mal fondees† (husk a kildefore sitater), which reveals Bodin’s obsession with order in that the commonwealth cannot be totally organized if it is not rightly constituted and thus not performing its proper function: this can also be related to the sovereign in that his guidance is useless if he cannot unite all of his members. 19 For Bodin the family is an irreducible unit of the state, for Hobbes the matter is of a different character. Hobbes and the individual The foregoing discussion support the underlying argument in favour of the plurality needed to form the family into a harmonious and organized entity which Bodin find crucial for the ?=? ! / ?0? 78? 9 # $? *: )? : ;0?.? / 1-; ?A? 7 @ #? @ ( 2 7 $? *3 @ @ @ (2 )? G : ;0A.? / A? ?F? 7 @ #? @ ( 2 7 $? *3 @ @ @ (2 )? G : ;0A. / 0 MA ?;? 78? 9 # $? *: )? : ;0?. / 1-; 6 13 Political Theory establishment of the state, according to Hobbes there is no compelling reason to argue that such is the case. In De Cive, the family is not given a pivotal place rather he pursue a more individualistic approach in accordance to Bodin’s idea of the family. However, Hobbes thoughts of the family depends much upon the entity being in an external or internal position relative to the commonwealth and if the family is being ruled by a foreign power or not. 20 As. King argues, Hobbes is in a lesser degree concerned with the family’s position within the Commonwealth, in any case it is the process that one is being born as individuals connected to others by force and fear, or for Bodin which emphasise individuals being born into families, that is the central feature. 21 In addition, they differ in that Bodin think of the ascendancy of the sovereign as originated solely coming from the families but for Hobbes it is originated from individuals as a whole. The literature gathered in this study suggests that both Hobbes and Bodin agrees that the state must exist in order to prevent war. The Hobbesian view of the state is founded in his definition of the natural state. The state of nature is for Hobbes a state of anarchy, where egocentric individuals fight for their right of self-preservation creating chaotic circumstances and where mutual fear is their leading motivation. Hobbes believed that the mankind maintain a will of doing harm to others, and that this derives from the need to defend their own property and liberty against others in a state of anarchistic rule. The moral dilemma that occur in the state of nature has for Hobbes only one escape route, and that is the presence of a sovereign power, either in singular or plural form chosen by the objective will of the people due to pull them out societal chaos and secure for them peace and order. Indeed, for Hobbes the sovereign is of crucial importance: â€Å"For if this power is abolished, the commonwealth is abolished with it, and universial confusion returns. †22 For Bodin the goal of peace and order is much in line with Hobbes’ but it does not involve a social contract as such but it thus involve a conception of fear. In Book 4, ch. 1 he describes ?- ?!! ! # $ ?!! % ? (? ) *+ , ! + $ . / -A? M 1 , $ *3 @ 3 9 )? +? 2 ;A1. / F1 ?!! ! # $ ?!! % ? (? ) *+ , ! + $ . / F? 7 13 Political Theory the rise and fall of the commonwealth where he acknowledges that â€Å"the commonwealth can be founded either in violence or in consent. †23 As much as this resembles Hobbes in that disorder is the catalyst for the development state, Allen provide us with a more applicable explanation. He argues that since the interdependent relationship between the sovereign and the state is present, the realization of the sovereign may be impelled by fear, which therefore result in a state being established by force. 24 On the other side, what seem to resemble the two is the necessity of a sovereign to guide the people. On these grounds, it is clear that Hobbes and Bodin follow a hierarchical structure in terms of the relationship between the superior and the inferior and that â€Å"command and obedience† is the central feature. On one side the similarity between them lie in their use of fear and consent as essential factors for the rising of the Commonwealth. Here, Professor Dunning offers an interesting claim placing emphasis on the contract idea that Hobbes present. He suggest that in contemporary France the social contract was for Bodin more a weapon of his opponents, which in its turn inclined him to focus on the state as a model evolving out of the inherent characteristics of the man and his surroundings. 25 On the other side the philosophers tend to differ in that Bodin support the idea that the sovereign should rule over the families and Hobbes believed in the individualistic characterisation of the social contract. Moreover, who are the ones (person or group) that should rule over the families featuring Bodin and the individual’s characteristic of Hobbes? The sovereign To portray the issue of the nature of sovereignty, Hobbes like Bodin believed, that in order to prevent war absolute power placed in single or plural entity was necessary. Within the sphere of political theory, The Republic could be said to contain the first fully developed theory of sovereignty, however one could argue that Marsiglio of Padua was the one close enough to find all the elements of the subject but where there occurred gaps, Bodin was to fulfil these perfectly. 26 In case of his descendant, it would be absurd to assert that Hobbes followed his forerunner slavishly. ?6? 7 @ #? @ ( 2 7 $? *3 @ @ @ (2 )? G : ;0A.? / -; ?1? 78? 9 # $? *: )? : ;0?.? / 1 ?=? 8? ? 9? C D7 @ % $E $ * F;0. //? F B -1 G/? HH222I H! H 6;0-6 8 13 Political Theory Bodin’s theory of a â€Å"commonwealth is normally taken as the starting point of modern times† and this because of its clear composed nature of the rights and power of the sovereign. 27 His definition of sovereignty in the Republic was written as an entity holding â€Å"absolute and perpetual power vested in a commonwealth†. 28 Here the power is not only absolute, but perpetual at the same time, nonetheless he is careful not to use this definition outside its theoretical field of use, he further states; â€Å"For if one confines to that which has no termination whatever, then sovereignty cannot subsist save in aristocracies and popular states, which never die. †29 The central point here is that Bodin agrees to an unlimited and despotic government but without taking the concept of perpetuity too far. His theory of sovereignty is based on the nature of absolutism and it is clear that he was a champion of monarchic absolutism and preferred that it should be invested in a single prince; whereas Hobbes share his concern but differ in that he was inclined to apply this to a collective group of people. For Hobbes the King and commonwealth is intertwined, in that one cannot talk about the one of them from the other. He comprehend the sovereign as withholding the will of the citizens consisting of absolute power; â€Å"the greatest power that men can confer, greater than any power than an individual power can have over himself. †30 In accordance to the legislation within the Commonwealth both Hobbes’ and Bodin’s sovereign is able to make his own laws, which also extended to the fact that he is not subject to it. For Hobbes the thought of the King to be subject to the Commonwealth and law would be irrational, the Sovereign is the embodiment of the Commonwealth. The sovereign is therefore not bound by obligations towards his citizens and if the sovereign is to act immoral, that is a matter between himself and God. As it has been important to discuss citizens role within the state and their relationship to the sovereign making it easier to fully understand the means of absolute power, it is also ?0? 7+:? 2 7 @ N O: $N POLI? CAL STUDIES 0 //? -0M ?A? 7? : ( $? ) $ *L? 2? P ( @ )? / $ ;.? / A ?F? 7 @ #? @ ( 2 7 $? *3 @ @ @ (2 )? G : ;0A.? / =? ?;? ! / 0 6- ?!! ! # $ ?!! % ? (? ) *+ , ! + $ .? / F? 9 13 Political Theory important to take this with us when we shall now discuss the church and how the state is related to it. The church An interesting question arise when one should determine, in a time where religion was almost too present, where the authority of the church lay within the spheres of the absolute rule. Religious upheaval in France and England in the 16th, 17th century had its origins from the breakup of the mediaeval church that destroyed the framework of older forms of political thinking. As long as there was a universally recognized Church the possibility to practice a unilateral faith was possible, but to place this authority under the prince may have been an impracticable demand. When there later came a time of religious uncertainty and the development of a new faith, people was faced with the opportunity to choose which in its turn lead to confusion. The hierarchy of the Catholic church and the Church of England and France had both claimed that their authority comes directly from God and that they was set out to practice the faith of the nation: as a rebuttal to this point, it might be argued that the political thought of both Bodin and Hobbes was not to find a fertile ground in this statement. Chapter XVII of De Cive constitutes the argument of the relationship between the sovereign and the Church stating that any authority given from God has its place within the sphere of sovereign power. For Hobbes absolute ecclesiastical power was vested in the sovereign, which included the right to interpret the Holy Scriptures. 31 One could argue that Hobbes needed an absolute sovereign as the solution to the problem of war: if the sovereign had the absolute authority of the Church and over the citizens, war would have been unproductive because no one can challenge the ruler, achieve results and further depose him. If the church would go against the sovereign it would go against the religious power of the state which would seem illogical, and in case of the citizens they do not have any authority to bring down the King because he is appointed upon a social contract representing the will of the people. On logical grounds there seem a compelling reason to argue that the law of God has a fundamental place within the political thought of Bodin. He does not tend enlarge upon the place of religion within the sphere of politics within the Republic in contrast to Hobbes who 6 ! / ;; 10 13 Political Theory has a whole section devoted to the concept of religion, however it is clear that he never meant that the state was forced to establish a form of religious and demand conformity to it. 32 Rather he meant that the state must create the soil from with religion could grow, therefore it is safe to say that the Church had a place within the state and that with this it followed religious duties. Hobbes had a different view on the ecclesiastical power of the state than Bodin; â€Å"the Commonwealth and the Church (are) of the same Christian men† and â€Å"exactly the same thing under two names. †33 Further Hobbes says that this synonymity rest upon the common feature between the two, the Christian people, and that the two instances is the only one to gather them. Personally, Hobbes was an erastian; he believed that the state should rule the Church. For Bodin. Religion created obedience that form the basis of his version of the commonwealth. The sovereign is the voice of the Church, but his determination of practicing the religious faith is relative and rest upon his will to make it flourish or not. Indeed, in the Rebublic the word of the sovereign â€Å"should be as sacred as a divine pronouncement. † 34 Conclusion Throughout this analysis the attempt to create a fertile discussion of the nature of the state and its place in relation to the church have been central, which have been built upon the effort to create a narrow historical review in the wide field of history. There have also been provided an discussion of the similarities and differences between Thomas Hobbes and Jean Bodin within the selected themes of this assignment. What is clear is that one cannot simply divide 6? 7 @ #? @ ( 2 7 $? *3 @ @ @ (2 )? G : ;0A.? / ## 66 ?!! ! # $ ?!! % ? (? ) *+ , ! + $ .? / 617 @ #? @ ( 2 7 $? *3 @ @ @ (2 )? G : ;0A.? / 6-? 11 13 Political Theory politics from religion in a time where they were inseparable, like one cannot divide Bodin’s idea of the family and Hobbes’ concept of the individual without removing the cornerstone of their theories. Both philosophers tried to provide the best solution to their contemporary struggles in France and England, and in case of their theory of absolute sovereignty it can be said their impetus was to lead the way out of the labyrinth of war with peace as their rewarding result. Both theories have portrayed a hierarchy of power, where God has the solemn authority and the earthly sovereign is positioned as subject to him but holds the right to interpreter of the faith of the state making him more or less the mouthpiece of God. Built upon this statement the Church has a duty within the state: it is just reliant on the degree of initiative practised by the sovereign in Bodin case and for Hobbes it is more a matter absolute affiliation to the religious role that the sovereign holds. To conclude, even though Bodin and Hobbes had different starting points, went by different routes they more or less reached the same goal placing the political and religious within the hands of the absolute sovereign List of references Allen, J. W. Political Thought of the Sixteenth Century. London: Methuen Co Ltd, 1961.Franklin, Julian, H. International Library of Essays in the History of Social and Political Thought: Jean Bodin. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2006 12 13 Political Theory King, Preston. The ideology of order. Great Britain: George Allen Unwin, 1974 Laski, Harold J. The Foundation of Sovereignty and other writings. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921 Lewis, J. U. , â€Å"Jean Bodin’s ‘Logic of Sovereignty’†, Political Studies 16 (1968): pp. 206 – 222 Lubienski. Z. â€Å"Hobbes Philosophy and Its Historical Background†, Journal of Philosophical Studies vol. 5, no. 4 (Apr.1930): 175 – 190, http://www. jstor. org/stable/3745504 Skinner, Quentin. The Foundations of Modern Political Thought: Volume 1, The Renaissance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002 Summerfield, Baldwin, Jean Bodin and the League, The Catholic Historical Review, Vol. 23, No. 2 (Jul. , 1937), pp. 160-184 Tooley, M. J, trans. Jean Bodin: Six Books of the Commonwealth. Great Britain: Basil Blackwell Mott, Ltd, 1967 Tuck, Richard Silverthorne, Michael, ed. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought: Thomas Hobbes On the Citizen. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2000 ?

Violence in Richard Wright’s Black Boy Essay -- Richard Wright Black B

Violence in Richard Wright’s Black Boy Most literary works centering on adolescence do not depict it as the proverbial walk through the park; a smooth transition between the naivet6 and innocence of childhood to the morality and self -awareness of adulthood is an implausibility confined to the most basic of fairy tales and weekday morning children’s television programming. When analyzed in depth, the mat uration process of a human being is depicted almost always as some sort of struggle, retaliation against the forces of oppression regardless of their forms (including social, political or religious obstacles). More importantly, the struggle of adolescence is a struggle to understand not the workings of one’s environment so much as the complexities and definitions of one’s own identity. Body hair, voice undulations, wider hips – these popular aspects of maturation pale in comparison with the development of self-awareness: the realization that one is a unique human being with the right to su rvive and live life according to personal standards. Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson describes this delicate transitional period as a crisis of identity:It occurs in that per iod of the life cycle when each youth must forge for himself some central perspective and direction, some working unity, out of the effective remnants of his childhood and the hopes of his anticipated adulthood; he must detect some meaningful resemblance b etween what he has come to see in himself and what his sharpened awareness tels him others judge and expect him to be. In some young people, in some classes, at some periods in history, this crisis [of identity] wil be minimal; in other people, classes, and periods the crisis wil be clearly marked off as a critical pe... ...nt in the future can one possibly change his or her downtrodden situation, can mold, shape and tune their lives with al the freedom that comes from possessing an individual identity. Works Cited Elison, Ralph. Invisible Man . New York: Vintage, 1995. Erikson, Erik. Young Man Luther. New York: Norton, 1962. Howe, Irving. â€Å"Black Boys and Native Sons,† CriticalEssays on Richard Wright. ed. Yoshinobu Hakutani. Boston: G.K. Hal and C o., 1982. 39 -47. Hurston, Zora Neale. Mules and Men . New York: Harper Perennial, 1990. Kinnamon, Kenneth and Michael Fabre. â€Å"How Richard Wright Looks at Black Boy,† Conversations with Richard Wright. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993 . 63-66. Margolies, Edward. The Art of Richard Wright. Carbondale: Southern Ilinois University Press, 1969. Wright, Richard. Black Boy . New York: Perennial Classics, 1998. Violence in Richard Wright’s Black Boy Essay -- Richard Wright Black B Violence in Richard Wright’s Black Boy Most literary works centering on adolescence do not depict it as the proverbial walk through the park; a smooth transition between the naivet6 and innocence of childhood to the morality and self -awareness of adulthood is an implausibility confined to the most basic of fairy tales and weekday morning children’s television programming. When analyzed in depth, the mat uration process of a human being is depicted almost always as some sort of struggle, retaliation against the forces of oppression regardless of their forms (including social, political or religious obstacles). More importantly, the struggle of adolescence is a struggle to understand not the workings of one’s environment so much as the complexities and definitions of one’s own identity. Body hair, voice undulations, wider hips – these popular aspects of maturation pale in comparison with the development of self-awareness: the realization that one is a unique human being with the right to su rvive and live life according to personal standards. Psychoanalyst Erik Erikson describes this delicate transitional period as a crisis of identity:It occurs in that per iod of the life cycle when each youth must forge for himself some central perspective and direction, some working unity, out of the effective remnants of his childhood and the hopes of his anticipated adulthood; he must detect some meaningful resemblance b etween what he has come to see in himself and what his sharpened awareness tels him others judge and expect him to be. In some young people, in some classes, at some periods in history, this crisis [of identity] wil be minimal; in other people, classes, and periods the crisis wil be clearly marked off as a critical pe... ...nt in the future can one possibly change his or her downtrodden situation, can mold, shape and tune their lives with al the freedom that comes from possessing an individual identity. Works Cited Elison, Ralph. Invisible Man . New York: Vintage, 1995. Erikson, Erik. Young Man Luther. New York: Norton, 1962. Howe, Irving. â€Å"Black Boys and Native Sons,† CriticalEssays on Richard Wright. ed. Yoshinobu Hakutani. Boston: G.K. Hal and C o., 1982. 39 -47. Hurston, Zora Neale. Mules and Men . New York: Harper Perennial, 1990. Kinnamon, Kenneth and Michael Fabre. â€Å"How Richard Wright Looks at Black Boy,† Conversations with Richard Wright. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993 . 63-66. Margolies, Edward. The Art of Richard Wright. Carbondale: Southern Ilinois University Press, 1969. Wright, Richard. Black Boy . New York: Perennial Classics, 1998.

Sectionalism Due to Western Expansion

The Antebellum period from 1800 to 1850 marked a time of sectionalism in American history. Furthermore, new territories gained during western expansion added to this conflict between different sections of America. Southern states wanted new slave territories, while the North wanted to contain the spread of slavery. While Western expansion contributed to growing sectional tensions between the North and South from 1800-1820, sectionalism intensified significantly from 1820-1850. Since the turn of the nineteenth century, Western territorial expansion started to increase a sense of sectionalism throughout America.President Jefferson obtained the Louisiana purchase from Napoleon in 1803, gaining unfamiliar territory West of the Mississippi River. As Lewis and Clark explored the area, others began to populate it, slowly leading to increased tensions between the North and the South. Soon an act was passed stating that territories with a certain number of inhabitants would be added to the un ion as newly developed states. Furthermore, During the Adams-Onis treaty with Spain, Florida was peacefully acquired as a state in America, which also increased tension.Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, and King Cotton increased the South’s dependence on slaves to sustain the supply and demand of cotton, while the North favored the containment of slavery; This difference between the territories regarding slavery directly contributed to the sense of sectionalism shared throughout the nation. However the issue of slavery would be postponed due to the War of 1812, and for a while afterwards, America’s shared sense of nationalism overpowered their shared sense of sectionalism.Around the time of 1820, America’s pride in their victory in the war of 1812 was wearing off, and the balance of nationalism and sectionalism among the nation shifted primarily due to Westward expansion. The Missouri Compromise of 1820, introduced by Henry Clay, allowed for both Maine and Missou ri to be admitted into the union on condition that Missouri became a slave state, as well as banning slavery above the thirty-sixth parallel. Any state admitted into the Union bellow this line would decide the legality of slavery for their new state, by popular sovereignty.This temporarily maintained the balance of slave states and free states in the Union, while increasing sectionalism throughout America. Neither the North or South wanted the other section to have more states favoring their own slavery ideals, in fear of biased representation in the Senate. Furthermore, sectionalism was demonstrated by the fact that congress felt the need to implement â€Å"The Gag rule†; This disallowed congress from discussing the issue of slavery for the next thirty years (while only lasting a decade).Though members of the house tried to pass the Wilmot proviso, which would ban slavery in newly acquired Mexican territories, Southerners naturally opposed this. Disagreements over how to dec ide the newly acquired land’s position on slavery, further intensified sectionalism between the North and South. At one point the South even tried to pass the Ostend Manifesto in an attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain, and admit it into the Union as a slave state.Although this effort failed, it strongly represents the intense sectionalism during the time: As an entire portion of the country acted autonomously to secure an additional state to gain power over their Northern neighbors. Finally, the compromise of 1850 was passed, declaring popular sovereignty as the determining factor of the position of slavery among the land gained from Mexico. Moreover, this compromise enforced a fugitive slave law, allowing the South to collect runaway slaves, abolished the slave trade in Washington D. C. , and admitted California as a free state.Although Congress implemented countless compromises to secure the unionization of America, their efforts proved futile, as sectionalism prevailed and the United States grew closer to an inevitable Civil War. Western expansion during the first half of the nineteenth century, along with increased tensions between the North and South due to slavery, directly increased the sense of sectionalism between the two regions. The controversy over controlled land transformed the nation’s intense sense of nationalism into an even more intense sense of sectionalism, leading to a Civil War only fifty years later.

Negotiating Teams

What are the most important considerations in selecting a negotiation team? Give examples. Why is time an important consideration in international business negotiations. There are four steps that lead to more efficient and effective international business negotiations. The first step is to select an appropriate negotiation team. Successful global business is dependent on a skillful international negotiator. A good negotiator should be mature, flexible, empathetic, emotionally stable, knowledgeable, optimistic, team player, good listener, influential, and have stamina. Probably the single most important quality needed for a negotiator is listening. A good negotiator must also be aware of cultural differences with whom they are negotiating. It is important to know the negotiating differences between people involved like their language, values, non verbal behaviors, and decision making process. For example, the American culture is based on independence and individualism. Americans need to learn how be part of a team and use team assistance to be a successful negotiation team. Another example, in regards to being a good listener, would be that someone on the negotiation team needs to collect information by taking good notes during meetings. It is very important that they listen carefully without speaking and interpret the needs of the people that they are negotiating with. Generally, experienced negotiators say that there is never enough time to prepare for negotiations. Lots of time is needed to assess the situation, assess the people you are negotiating with, gather facts, plan an agenda, think about possible agreements and strategies, and assign the team their responsibilities. Different cultures think differently on how their time is spent during negotiations. Some cultures like to structure negotiation time tackling all the issues at once and other cultures like to split up the issues and tackle them one at a time. Making sure that enough time is spent on each step of negotiations can vary from country to country. Time is an important factor to make sure that all four steps: nontask sounding, task related information exchange, persuasion, and concessions and agreements all receive an appropriate amount of time dedicated to each step. Certain cultures are more sensitive to time, like Americans, and if others involved in the negotiations don’t keep appropriate timing to the start, during, and end of negotiations it may cause misunderstandings. Time is involved in all steps of international business negotiations and is very important consideration during the planning, during the process of negotiations, after the negotiations and related to cultural awareness.